Education encompasses both the teaching and learning of knowledge, proper
conduct, and technical competency. It thus focuses on the cultivation of skills,
trades or professions, as well as mental, moral & aesthetic development.[1]
Formal education consists of systematic instruction, teaching and training by
professional teachers. This consists of the application of pedagogy and the
development of curricula. In a liberal education tradition, teachers draw on
many different disciplines for their lessons, including psychology, philosophy,
information technology, linguistics, biology, and sociology. Teachers in
specialized professions such as astrophysics, law, or zoology may teach only in
a narrow area, usually as professors at institutions of higher learning. There
is much specialist instruction in fields of trade for those want specific skills,
such as required to be a pilot, for example. Finally, there is an array of
educational opportunity in the informal sphere- for this reason, society
subsidizes institutions such as museums and libraries. Informal education also
includes knowledge and skills learned and refined during the course of life,
including education that comes from experience in practicing a profession.
The right to education is a fundamental human right. Since 1952, Article 2 of
the first Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights obliges all
signatory parties to guarantee the right to education. At world level, the
United Nations' International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
of 1966 guarantees this right under its Article 13.
Systems of Formal Education
World map indicating Education Index (2007/2008 Human Development
Report)Education systems are established to provide education and training, in
most cases for children and the young. A curriculum defines what students should
know, understand and be able to do as the result of education. A teaching
profession delivers teaching which enables learning, and a system of polices,
regulations, examinations, structures and funding enables teachers to teach to
the best of their abilities. Sometimes education systems can be used to promote
doctrines or ideals as well as knowledge, which is known as social engineering.
This can lead to political abuse of the system, particularly in totalitarian
states and government. Education is a broad concept,it refers to all the
experiences in which children can learn something. Instruction refers to the
intentional facilitating of learning toward identified goals, delivered either
by an instructor or other forms. Teaching refers to learning facilitated by a
real live instructor. Training refers to learning toward preparing learners with
specific knowledge, skills, or abilities that can be applied immediately.
[edit] Primary education
Main article: Primary education
Primary school in open air. Teacher (priest) with class from the outskirts of
Bucharest, around 1842.Primary (or elementary) education consists of the first
years of formal, structured education. In general, primary education consists of
six or seven years of schooling starting at the age of 5 or 6, although this
varies between and sometimes within countries. Globally, around 70% of
primary-age children are enrolled in primary education, and this proportion is
rising.[2]. Under the Education for All programs driven by UNESCO, most
countries have committed to achieving universal enrollment in primary education
by 2015, and in many countries, it is compulsory for children to receive primary
education. The division between primary and secondary education is somewhat
arbitrary, but it generally occurs at about eleven or twelve years of age. Some
education systems have separate middle schools with the transition to the final
stage of secondary education taking place at around the age of fourteen. Mostly
schools, which provide primary education, are referred to as primary schools.
Primary schools in these countries are often subdivided into infant schools and
junior schools.
[edit] Secondary education
Main article: Secondary education
In most contemporary educational systems of the world, secondary education
consists of the second years of formal education that occur during
adolescence.[citation needed] It is characterised by transition from the
typically compulsory, comprehensive primary education for minors to the
optional, selective tertiary, "post-secondary", or "higher" education (e.g.,
university, vocational school) for adults.[citation needed] Depending on the
system, schools for this period or a part of it may be called secondary or high
schools, gymnasiums, lyceums, middle schools, colleges, or vocational schools.
The exact meaning of any of these varies between the systems. The exact boundary
between primary and secondary education varies from country to country and even
within them, but is generally around the seventh to the tenth year of schooling.
Secondary education occurs mainly during the teenage years. In the United States
and Canada primary and secondary education together are sometimes referred to as
K-12 education, and in New Zealand Year 1-13 is used. The purpose of secondary
education can be to give common knowledge, to prepare for higher education or to
train directly in a profession.
[edit] Higher education
Main article: Higher education
The University of Cambridge is an institute of higher learning.Higher education,
also called tertiary, third stage or post secondary education, is the
non-compulsory educational level following the completion of a school providing
a secondary education, such as a high school, secondary school, or
gymnasium[citation needed]. Tertiary education is normally taken to include
undergraduate and postgraduate education, as well as vocational education and
training. Colleges and universities are the main institutions that provide
tertiary education. Collectively, these are sometimes known as tertiary
institutions.Tertiary education generally results in the receipt of
certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees.
Higher education includes teaching, research and social services activities of
universities, and within the realm of teaching, it includes both the
undergraduate level (sometimes referred to as tertiary education) and the
graduate (or postgraduate) level (sometimes referred to as graduate school).
Higher education in that country generally involves work towards a degree-level
or foundation degree qualification. In most developed countries a high
proportion of the population (up to 50%) now enter higher education at some time
in their lives. Higher education is therefore very important to national
economies, both as a significant industry in its own right, and as a source of
trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy.[citation needed]
[edit] Adult education
Lifelong, or adult, education has become widespread in many countries.[citation
needed] Adult education takes on many forms, from formal class-based learning to
self-directed learning.
[edit] Alternative education
Main article: Alternative education
Alternative education, also known as non-traditional education or educational
alternative, is a broad term which may be used to refer to all forms of
education outside of traditional education (for all age groups and levels of
education). This may include both forms of education designed for students with
special needs (ranging from teenage pregnancy to intellectual disability) and
forms of education designed for a general audience which employ alternative
educational philosophies and/or methods.
Alternatives of the latter type are often the result of education reform and are
rooted in various philosophies that are commonly fundamentally different from
those of traditional compulsory education. While some have strong political,
scholarly, or philosophical orientations, others are more informal associations
of teachers and students dissatisfied with certain aspects of traditional
education[citation needed]. These alternatives, which include charter schools,
alternative schools, independent schools, and home-based learning vary widely,
but often emphasize the value of small class size, close relationships between
students and teachers, and a sense of community[citation needed].
[edit] Emotional/Human education
As academic education is more and more the norm and standard, companies and
individuals are looking less at normal education as to what is deemed a good
solid educated person/worker. Most well educated and successful entrepreneurs
have high communication skills with humanistic and warm "emotional
intelligence".
In certain places, especially in the United States, the term alternative may
largely refer to forms of education catering to "at risk" students, as it is,
for example, in this definition drafted by the Massachusetts Department of
Education. [3]
[edit] Process
[edit] Curriculum
Main articles: Curriculum and List of academic disciplines
An academic discipline is a branch of knowledge which is formally taught, either
at the university, or via some other such method. Functionally, disciplines are
usually defined and recognized by the academic journals in which research is
published, and by the learned societies to which their practitioners
belong.[citation needed] Professors say schooling is 80% psychological, 20%
physical effort.[citation needed]
Each discipline usually has several sub-disciplines or branches, and
distinguishing lines are often both arbitrary and ambiguous. Examples of broad
areas of academic disciplines include the natural sciences, mathematics,
computer science, social sciences, humanities and applied sciences.[4]
[edit] Learning modalities
There has been a great deal of work on learning styles over the last two
decades. Dunn and Dunn[5] focused on identifying relevant stimuli that may
influence learning and manipulating the school environment, at about the same
time as Joseph Renzulli[6] recommended varying teaching strategies. Howard
Gardner[7] identified individual talents or aptitudes in his Multiple
Intelligences theories. Based on the works of Jung, the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator and Keirsey Temperament Sorter[8] focused on understanding how
people's personality affects the way they interact personally, and how this
affects the way individuals respond to each other within the learning
environment. The work of David Kolb and Anthony Gregorc's Type Delineator[9]
follows a similar but more simplified approach.
It is currently fashionable to divide education into different learning "modes".
The learning modalities[10] are probably the most common:[11]
Kinesthetic: learning based on hands-on work and engaging in activities.
Visual: learning based on observation and seeing what is being learned.
Auditory: learning based on listening to instructions/information.
It is claimed that, depending on their preferred learning modality, different
teaching techniques have different levels of effectiveness.[12] A consequence of
this theory is that effective teaching should present a variety of teaching
methods which cover all three learning modalities so that different students
have equal opportunities to learn in a way that is effective for them.[13]
[edit] Teaching
Teachers need the ability to understand a subject well enough to convey its
essence to a new generation of students. The goal is to establish a sound
knowledge base on which students will be able to build as they are exposed to
different life experiences. The passing of knowledge from generation to
generation allows students to grow into useful members of society. Good teachers
can translate information, good judgment, experience and wisdom into relevant
knowledge that a student can understand, retain and pass to others. As a
profession, teaching has very high levels of Work-Related Stress (WRS)[14] which
are listed as amongst the highest of any profession in some countries, such as
the United Kingdom. The degree of this problem is becoming increasingly
recognized and support systems are put into place.[15]
[edit] Technology
Main article: Educational technology
Technology is an increasingly influential factor in education. Computers and
mobile phones are being widely used in developed countries both to complement
established education practices and develop new ways of learning such as online
education (a type of distance education). This gives students the opportunity to
choose what they are interested in learning. The proliferation of computers also
means the increase of programming and blogging. Technology offers powerful
learning tools that demand new skills and understandings of students, including
Multimedia, and provides new ways to engage students, such as Virtual learning
environments. Technology is being used more not only in administrative duties in
education but also in the instruction of students. The use of technologies such
as PowerPoint and interactive whiteboard is capturing the attention of students
in the classroom. Technology is also being used in the assessment of students.
One example is the Audience Response System (ARS), which allows immediate
feedback tests and classroom discussions.
Information and communication technologies (ICTs) are a “diverse set of tools
and resources used to communicate, create, disseminate, store, and manage
information.”[16] These technologies include computers, the Internet,
broadcasting technologies (radio and television), and telephony. There is
increasing interest in how computers and the Internet can improve education at
all levels, in both formal and non-formal settings.[17] Older ICT technologies,
such as radio and television, have for over forty years been used for open and
distance learning, although print remains the cheapest, most accessible and
therefore most dominant delivery mechanism in both developed and developing
countries.[18]
The use of computers and the Internet is still in its infancy in developing
countries, if these are used at all, due to limited infrastructure and the
attendant high costs of access. Usually, various technologies are used in
combination rather than as the sole delivery mechanism. For example, the
Kothmale Community Radio Internet uses both radio broadcasts and computer and
Internet technologies to facilitate the sharing of information and provide
educational opportunities in a rural community in Sri Lanka.[19] The Open
University of the United Kingdom (UKOU), established in 1969 as the first
educational institution in the world wholly dedicated to open and distance
learning, still relies heavily on print-based materials supplemented by radio,
television and, in recent years, online programming.[20] Similarly, the Indira
Gandhi National Open University in India combines the use of print, recorded
audio and video, broadcast radio and television, and audio conferencing
technologies.[21]
The term "computer-assisted learning" (CAL) has been increasingly used to
describe the use of technology in teaching.
[edit] History
Main article: History of education
A depiction of the University of Bologna, ItalyThe history of education
according to Dieter Lenzen, president of the Freie Universität Berlin 1994
"began either millions of years ago or at the end of 1770". Education as a
science cannot be separated from the educational traditions that existed before.
Education was the natural response of early civilizations to the struggle of
surviving and thriving as a culture.[citation needed] Adults trained the young
of their society in the knowledge and skills they would need to master and
eventually pass on.[citation needed] The evolution of culture, and human beings
as a species depended on this practice of transmitting knowledge.[citation
needed] In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through
imitation. Story-telling continued from one generation to the next. Oral
language developed into written symbols and letters. The depth and breadth of
knowledge that could be preserved and passed soon increased
exponentially.[citation needed] When cultures began to extend their knowledge
beyond the basic skills of communicating, trading, gathering food, religious
practices, etc, formal education, and schooling, eventually followed.[citation
needed] Schooling in this sense was already in place in Egypt between 3000 and
500BC.[citation needed]
[edit] Philosophy
Main articles: Philosophy of education and Epistemology
John Locke's work Some Thoughts Concerning Education was written in 1693 and
still reflects traditional education priorities in the Western worldThe
philosophy of education is the study of the purpose, nature and ideal content of
education. Related topics include knowledge itself, the nature of the knowing
mind and the human subject, problems of authority, and the relationship between
education and society.[citation needed] At least since Locke's time, the
philosophy of education has been linked to theories of developmental psychology
and human development.[citation needed]
Fundamental purposes that have been proposed for education include:
The enterprise of civil society depends on educating people to become
responsible, thoughtful and enterprising citizens. This is an intricate,
challenging task requiring deep understanding of ethical principles, moral
values, political theory, aesthetics, and economics, not to mention an
understanding of who children are, in themselves and in society.[citation
needed]
Progress in every practical field depends on having capacities that schooling
can develop. Education is thus a means to foster the individual's, society's,
and even humanity's future development and prosperity. Emphasis is often put on
economic success in this regard.[citation needed]
One's individual development and the capacity to fulfill one's own purposes can
depend on an adequate preparation in childhood. Education can thus attempt to
give a firm foundation for the achievement of personal fulfillment. The better
the foundation that is built, the more successful the child will be. Simple
basics in education can carry a child far.[citation needed]
A central tenet of education typically includes “the imparting of knowledge.” At
a very basic level, this purpose ultimately deals with the nature, origin and
scope of knowledge.[citation needed] The branch of philosophy that addresses
these and related issues is known as epistemology. This area of study often
focuses on analyzing the nature and variety of knowledge and how it relates to
similar notions such as truth and belief.
While the term, knowledge, is often used to convey this general purpose of
education, it can also be viewed as part of a continuum of knowing that ranges
from very specific data to the highest levels. Seen in this light, the continuum
may be thought to consist of a general hierarchy of overlapping levels of
knowing.[citation needed] Students must be able to connect new information to a
piece of old information to be better able to learn, understand, and retain
information.[citation needed] This continuum may include notions such as data,
information, knowledge, wisdom, and realization.
The ideal or holistic education [Cf: Conceptual Stress-Understanding and
Management: Dr. Shriniwas Kashalikar] is conscious evolutionary transformation
that aims at holistic health i.e. simultaneous welfare of one and all. This
requires conscious development of fitness of one's body, refinements of
instincts, broadening and profoundness of emotions, blossoming of intelligence
and liberating perspective of universal oneness. Besides, cognitive, affective
and psychomotor the productive domain also must be nurtured for this.
[edit] Psychology
Main article: Educational psychology
A class size experiment in the United States found that attending small classes
for 3 or more years in the early grades increased high school graduation of
students from low income families.[22]Educational psychology is the study of how
humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational
interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools
as organizations. Although the terms "educational psychology" and "school
psychology" are often used interchangeably, researchers and theorists are likely
to be identified as educational psychologists, whereas practitioners in schools
or school-related settings are identified as school psychologists.[citation
needed] Educational psychology is concerned with the processes of educational
attainment in the general population and in sub-populations such as gifted
children and those with specific disabilities.[citation needed]
Educational psychology can in part be understood through its relationship with
other disciplines. It is informed primarily by psychology, bearing a
relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between medicine
and biology.[citation needed] Educational psychology in turn informs a wide
range of specialities within educational studies, including instructional
design, educational technology, curriculum development, organizational learning,
special education and classroom management.[citation needed] Educational
psychology both draws from and contributes to cognitive science and the learning
sciences.[citation needed] In universities, departments of educational
psychology are usually housed within faculties of education, possibly accounting
for the lack of representation of educational psychology content in introductory
psychology textbooks (Lucas, Blazek, & Raley, 2006).
[edit] Economic implications of Education
Main article: Economics of education
It has been argued that high rates of education are essential for countries to
be able to achieve high levels of economic growth. [23] In theory poor countries
should grow faster than rich countries because they can adopt cutting edge
technologies already tried and tested by rich countries.[citation needed] But
economists argue that if the gap in education between a rich and a poor nation
is too large, as is the case between the poorest and the richest nations in the
world, the transfer of these technologies that drive economic growth becomes
difficult, thus the economies of the world's poorest nations stagnate.[citation
needed]
[edit] Sociology of education
Main article: Sociology of education
Russia has more academic graduates than any other country in Europe.The
sociology of education is the study of how social institutions and forces affect
educational processes and outcomes, and vice versa. By many, education is
understood to be a means of overcoming handicaps, achieving greater equality and
acquiring wealth and status for all (Sargent 1994). Learners may be motivated by
aspirations for progress and betterment. Education is perceived as a place where
children can develop according to their unique needs and potentialities.[24] The
purpose of education can be to develop every individual to their full
potential.[citation needed] The understanding of the goals and means of
educational socialization processes differs according to the sociological
paradigm used.
[edit] Education in developing countries
In developing countries, the number and seriousness of the problems faced are
naturally greater.[citation needed] People are sometimes unaware of the
importance of education, and there is economic pressure from those parents who
prioritize their children's making money in the short term over any long-term
benefits of education.[citation needed] Recent studies on child labor and
poverty have suggested that when poor families reach a certain economic
threshold where families are able to provide for their basic needs, parents
return their children to school.[citation needed] This has been found to be
true, once the threshold has been breached, even if the potential economic value
of the children's work has increased since their return to school.[citation
needed] Teachers are often paid less than other similar professions.[citation
needed]
A lack of good universities, and a low acceptance rate for good universities, is
evident in countries with a relatively high population density.[citation needed]
In some countries, there are uniform, over structured, inflexible centralized
programs from a central agency that regulates all aspects of education.
Due to globalization, increased pressure on students in curricular activities
Removal of a certain percentage of students for improvisation of academics
(usually practised in schools, after 10th grade)
India is now developing technologies that will skip land based phone and
internet lines. Instead, India launched EDUSAT, an education satellite that can
reach more of the country at a greatly reduced cost. There is also an initiative
started by a group out of MIT and supported by several major corporations to
develop a $100 laptop. The laptops should be available by late 2006 or 2007. The
laptops, sold at cost, will enable developing countries to give their children a
digital education, and to close the digital divide across the world.
In Africa, NEPAD has launched an "e-school programme" to provide all 600,000
primary and high schools with computer equipment, learning materials and
internet access within 10 years. Private groups, like The Church of Jesus Christ
of Latter-day Saints, are working to give more individuals opportunities to
receive education in developing countries through such programs as the Perpetual
Education Fund. An International Development Agency project called nabuur.com,
started with the support of American President Bill Clinton, uses the Internet
to allow co-operation by individuals on issues of social development.
[edit] Internationalisation
Education is becoming increasingly international. Not only are the materials
becoming more influenced by the rich international environment, but exchanges
among students at all levels are also playing an increasingly important role. In
Europe, for example, the Socrates-Erasmus Programme stimulates exchanges across
European universities. Also, the Soros Foundation provides many opportunities
for students from central Asia and eastern Europe. Some scholars argue that,
regardless of whether one system is considered better or worse than another,
experiencing a different way of education can often be considered to be the most
important, enriching element of an international learning experience.[25]